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Non-standard discovery digest: genealogy of predatory plants, fungus on Twitter and laughing gas from guano



Every day in the world there is a lot of research and discovery, the degree of importance and severity of which is difficult to evaluate objectively. For someone there is nothing more important than the search for extraterrestrial life, but someone will consider the discovery of a new species of butterflies unbelievable. Be that as it may, all discoveries are important, all discoveries are needed. Today we will get acquainted with studies in which scientists were able to recognize the genetic common markers of predatory plants, identify a new species of fungus from a photograph, and establish a connection between penguins and laughing gas. I think it’s not worthwhile to judge which of these is more important, but it is worth to impartially read the reports of all the studies. Go.

Genetic “birthmarks” of carnivorous plants


As we know, most plants do not have a bloodthirsty disposition, and their gastronomic preferences are limited to sunlight, water, and nutrients in the soil. For many species, such a diet is more than enough to dominate its growing regions. However, in the course of evolution, some types of plants encountered what the young entrepreneur often faces - competition.

Many of the predatory plants did not become such of their own free will, but due to environmental factors: low light (low-growing plants are difficult to compete with mighty trees in a dense forest for sunlight), poor soil, etc. Catching insects (and sometimes even larger ones) allows these plants to survive.


An informative and humorous video about predatory plants.

Hunting methods are different for different species. The Venus flytrap ( Dionaea muscipula ) and Aldrovanda ( Aldrovanda vesiculosa ) hunt by the trap principle, holding prey between bivalve leaves and simultaneously digesting it. The spoon-shaped dewdrop ( Drosera spatulata ) looks like a spoon (unexpectedly, right?) Covered with drops of dew, which is actually sticky nectar that attracts naive insects to this sweet trap. Nepentes implements even more lazy, but no less effective tactics. This plant has a jug with nectar at the bottom. The edges of the jug are extremely slippery, and therefore insects, which are overpowered for free food, can easily fall in and become food themselves.


№1.1. : — Aldrovanda vesiculosa, — Dionaea muscipula — Drosera spatulata. D — Droseracaea , . — « »*. F — *, .
* ( ) — , .
* ( ) — , / .
As you can see, there are many plants, as well as hunting methods, but all these predators have something in common, namely genetic markers.

Scientists have found that in the genetic code of three plants ( Dionaea muscipula , Aldrovanda vesiculosa and Drosera spatulata ) share common genes responsible for their predatory nature.


Image No. 1.2: expansion and contraction of the gene family. A is the number of extended (blue) and compressed (pink) orthogroups * common to different lines. B - functional annotation of 279 extended gene families common to all three Droseraceae (arrows indicate a chronology of events during the hunt).
* — , .
These genes can be called the minimum "gentlemanly" set of a real predator plant. Their main task is a sense of prey and the ability to digest it. This finding is rather unusual for geneticists, since all three species have an extremely poor genetic code, so to speak: Drosera has only 18111 genes, Dionaea has 21135 genes, and Aldrovanda has 25123.

It is also interesting that predator genes are also present in ordinary plants, however, mostly in the root system. Some of the genes are active, some are not, and therefore there is such a distinct gastronomic difference. In addition, these genes located in areas of the plant where direct contact with prey occurs are activated only at the moment of this contact.


1.3. Di. muscipula. — . D — WRKY, Di. muscipula. — TF- *, , WRKY.
* — , .
TF ( )* — , .
It was possible to explain the presence of common genes in different species by tracing their family tree up to a common ancestor that grew on Earth millions of years ago.


Image No. 1.4: reconstruction of the key stages in the evolution of carnivores in a plant of the Droseraceae family.

Summing up, the researchers were able to isolate the three main stages of the development of carnivores in different species of predatory plants. The first step is to duplicate the entire genome from their last common ancestor, which gave them gene material for diversification in carnivorous functions. This includes the process of expression of the ancestor's root genes into trapped leaves.

The second stage is due to the fact that the use of a new source of nutrients has reduced the selective pressure on the genes involved in the "non-healthy" diet. This led to a huge loss of genes, with the result that the three genomes of the most genetically poor plants have been sequenced to date.

And the third stage - various species-specific mechanisms contributed to the emergence of independent hunting styles specific to the clade.

Researchers argue that these three stages could not occur independently of each other and could intersect during evolution. The genetic material underlying the carnivorous plant is present in most non-predatory plants, and duplications of the entire genome often occurred throughout the plant kingdom. In other words, most plants were able to become carnivores. However, thank Darwin, this did not happen, and therefore most plants prefer far more safe methods of nutrition for surrounding creatures.

For a more detailed acquaintance with the nuances of the study, I recommend a look at the report of scientists .

Scientific discovery via Twitter


Most scientific discoveries take place within the walls of laboratories, in the field, or through lengthy calculations and simulations. However, there are some discoveries that would not have occurred if it were not for some accident. For example, in 1943, Richard James tried to develop a new type of spring that would be used in shipbuilding. In the process, one of the springs fell from the shelf and continued its movement. So one of the most recognizable toys in the world appeared - a spring (or "slinky").


Advertising of the "slinky" spring of the 60s.

And recently, another accident occurred that led to an unusual discovery. Biologist Ana Sophia Reboleira (National Museum of Natural History, Washington), like many these days, is a Twitter user. Once, looking through a tape, she drew attention to a photo published by her colleague Derek Hennen (Virginia Polytechnic University). The picture showed a North American millipede. At first glance, nothing unusual, a millipede like a millipede. However, for the biologist, all the details are important, because Ana Sofia paid attention to a couple of small points on the body of the arthropod. According to the scientist, the points resembled a fungus, and therefore it was decided to find a couple of individuals in the bins of the museum and consider them more closely.

As a result, it was revealed that this is not a defect in the image or “wishful thinking”, but a real fungus from the Laboulbeniales squad .


Image No. 2.1: male millipedes Cambala annulata, on whose body they found a new type of fungus (highlighted in red).

In order Laboulbeniales, there are about 2200 species, comprising 142 genera. All described species are associated with arthropods and spend their whole lives on their bodies. Some scientists believe that Laboulbeniales is a parasite, because they have a very complex system of drawing nutrients from the body of the carrier. However, not all Laboulbeniales species have these organs, because their parasitic nature is still in doubt.

Nevertheless, most carriers of this fungus are represented by insects, mainly hard-winged ( Coleoptera ) - 80% and dipterans ( Diptera ) - 10%, but there are also cases when the fungus of this order was found on the body of other arthropods: mites, hayfoot, centipedes etc.

Until recently, according to the researchers themselves, the study of Laboulbeniales received very little attention. The main reasons for this were limited technologies, since Laboulbeniales are very small (the length of the new species is 81–129 microns), and therefore it is extremely difficult to study them. The same situation was with genetic information regarding these organisms. Phylogenetic studies began to be fully carried out only in 2018. In other words, information regardingLaboulbeniales is still extremely small.

Despite all these difficulties, the discovery of new species of Laboulbeniales continues. Until 2014, only 8 species were found that parasitize (theoretically) on the body of millipedes. Now at least thirty are known. All these findings were made in Europe, Asia, and even in New Zealand, but in North America such species were not found before.


Image No. 2.2: Appearance of a newly discovered fungus from the Laboulbeniales squad (a brief description is provided below).

Description of the found species:
Tallomas * hyaline (translucent), with the exception of the leg.
* — , , , , .
(I) . (II) , , 1.5 . ( ) II-III II-VI , . II-VI , II-III. III 8 . , , , . ; . (2, «n») . ( ( ) ), (2G, «an»). (VI) , (2B 2F, «VI»). , , . , (2, ). (2F, ).

The main distinguishing features of Laboulbeniales living on the body of a millipede are: generational change on one carrier; populations of these species are stronger and more stable in comparison with other species; live mainly in a humid environment.

Given that this fungus lives exclusively on the millipede’s body, the question arises - how does it spread? The answer lies in the location of the fungus on the body of the unfortunate insect. The fungus lives in the genital area, and is transmitted at moments of contact between individuals.

Due to the fact that Twitter played by no means the last role in this discovery, a new species was named after him - Troglomyces twitteri. As the authors of the discovery themselves say, this situation once again confirms that the consolidation of different fields of science, scientists from different universities, cities and countries is one of the most important aspects of the development of science as a whole.

For a more detailed acquaintance with the nuances of the study, I recommend a look at the report of scientists .

Laughing gas and penguins


A king penguin from the family of emperor penguins is a flightless bird, but very proud, which also gave him such a great name. These incredible creatures inhabit the islands of Tierra del Fuego, South Georgia, the South Sandwich Islands, Prince Edward, Crozet Island, Kerguelen, Hurd, Macquarie.



King penguins, although they can’t cut the sky, they can swim very well. Given that their diet consists of krill, squid and luminous anchovies, penguins spend a lot of time underwater, diving to depths of an average of 100 meters (cases of diving are documented at 300 meters). The lack of speed and grace on land is again compensated in the water - king penguins can accelerate to 10 km / h.

Outwardly, this species is very similar to its relative - the emperor penguin, but the second is 25% higher and weighs a third more. But the bright orange stripes framing the head are available in both species. Males need this colorful plumage to attract females during the nesting period. King penguins create one pair per nesting cycle, although there is approximately a 30% chance that such a pair will exist for more than one cycle.


Video about the life of king penguins (BBC, David Attenborough).

The period from masonry to the plumage of the calf is quite long and ranges from 14 to 16 months. Like many other penguins, the royal ones also share parental responsibilities, hatching a single egg in turn (for 6-18 days each of the parents). After 55 days, breaking through the shell for 2-3 days, a chick is born, whose parents protect up to 40 days. After that, the chicks are already large enough to form groups that several adult representatives of the penguin colony look after, while the parents go in search of food.

In addition to seals, gulls and killer whales, one of the most bloodthirsty predators for king penguins has long been a man. The extermination continued until the beginning of the twentieth century. Currently, hunting for king penguins is prohibited, however, a change in climate and warm ocean currents can lead to the death of more than 70% of the population of this species. Such a sad prediction is connected with the fact that penguins eat, i.e. krill, whose abundance is also changing due to climate change. Not to mention commercial fishing in penguin habitats.

Currently, King Penguin colonies can count up to 100,000 pairs. In addition to forming pairs, hatching eggs, fighting predators and other important and exciting events, penguins are also doing what is rarely described in documentaries - defecation. Yes, the process is not the most pleasing to the eye (the sense of smell, too), but even here there is something curious.

Scientists from the University of Copenhagen found that penguin feces secrete large amounts of nitrous oxide, more commonly known as laughing gas.


Image No. 3.1: areas where soil was taken for analysis (South Georgia Island).

Nitrous oxide (N 2 O), like carbon dioxide (CO 2 ), has an extremely negative effect on the environment. More precisely, then N 2O is 300 times a detrimental effect on the environment than CO 2 .

The main source of N 2 O in penguin guano is, naturally, their food - fish and krill, which contain a large amount of nitrogen absorbed by phytoplankton in the ocean. After digestion and defecation, guano in the soil comes in contact with local bacteria that turn this substance into nitrous oxide.


Image No. 3.2: production / consumption rates of CO 2 , CH 4 and N 2 O based on data from soil cores (n = 10).

Does this mean that penguins pollute the environment with their guano? Of course yes. Does this mean that they must be destroyed? Of course not.

This study shows that in nature there are many processes that affect the state of the environment. Human activities also have a huge impact. However, penguins, no matter how much they allocate guano, will not be able to lead to environmental disaster, especially given their declining population. But a person is quite capable of screwing up big. The authors of this study believe that it is worth seriously considering the issue of agriculture. What fertilizes land to increase production often has the same effect as guano penguins.

In the future, scientists intend to pay attention to bacteria that play an important role in the synthesis of nitrous oxide from guano penguins. They believe that by learning more about these microorganisms, it will be possible to create the right model of soil fertilizer in agriculture (where, when and in what quantity to fertilize), which will reduce the already detrimental effect of man on the ecology of the planet.

For a more detailed acquaintance with the nuances of the study, I recommend a look at the report of scientists .

Epilogue


Scientific research is loud and such that they pass by the public eye unnoticed. Nevertheless, they all matter because they contribute to the well-being of man and the world that surrounds us. Small discoveries do not happen, they all affect our understanding of the world. Some open our eyes to something previously incomprehensible literally right away, while others need years to actualize.

Looking at everything that man has managed to do even in the last few decades, one cannot help but be surprised at the strength of our curiosity. We looked into the hopeless depths of the oceans and climbed to the tops of the most powerful mountains, we learned how to create life and obey the laws of physics, we really achieved greatness. However, you know, what is not visible in any image of the Earth? Us. Planet Earth, no matter how hackneyed this phrase may sound, does not belong to us, it is not a trophy or a sandbox, where we find out the relationship due to a lost shoulder blade, this is not a place for self-assertion against the background of those who are supposedly worse or dumber, this is not a market , where everything can be bought for money, and this is certainly not a toilet, where you can leave your "mark".

Sometimes our greatness overshadows our ignorance and recklessness. In pursuit of the championship, we begin to forget why we started to run. However, if you think about the greatness of the Universe, you begin to understand how insignificant a person is, how short his stay in this world, and how miserable all those squabbles that occur with enviable regularity.

You can philosophize on the topic of our place in this world for a very, very long time, but everyone still makes a conclusion for himself. The only thing that we sometimes seem to be lacking is respect. Respect for each other, respect for the habitat, respect for the creatures that live next to us. After all, the presence of a developed central nervous system can and does mean that we are the smartest, but this certainly does not guarantee that we are the wisest.

Thank you for your attention, stay curious and have a great weekend, friends! :)

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